Chief Editors Prof. Domenico Roberti and Prof. Giorgio Nuzzaci published two journal statements in Italian that are on volumes I (1965) & XXVII (1992/93), respectively. We acknowledge the lesson and the example given by former Editors during their service. This third statement marks a profound change in the way the Editor, the Steering Committee, the Topic and Country Editors, the Technical Board, the Users and the Authors participate in managing the editorial process. The Digital Revolution has been driving this change with the opportunity for a fast sharing and innovative treatment of the writings.
John A. Davidson: Coccidologist, Artist, Teacher and Naturalist
Dr. John Davidson was honored at the XIV International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies with the Career Achievement award for his outstanding research on scale insects, particularly armored scales. His contributions with colleagues and students include a comprehensive treatise on the economic armored scale insects of the United States, and a series of taxonomic works on armored scales in the genera Abgrallaspis, Crenulaspidiotus, Hemigymnaspis, Melanaspis, and Pseudischnaspis. He is best known for his detailed line drawings and beautiful color photographs. Research of his laboratory has emphasized the biology of the species studied including life history information on more than 20 species. He has undertaken pioneering research using integrated pest management strategies to develop the first arborist and nursery IPM programs. In ornamental landscapes he was among the first to test and promote summer oils for the control of armored scales. As a teacher, he taught courses in such diverse subjects as introductory entomology, systematics, insect taxonomy, insect morphology, parasitology, medical and veterinary entomology, coccidology, acarology, insect pests of ornamental plants, scientific illustration, ornithology, and human histology. He received high accolades from his students and was a member of more than 20 graduate committees in addition to serving as major professor to 10 graduate students in coccidology and acarology. John is a true naturalist and is knowledgeable of botany, general entomology, ichthyology, ornithology, herpetology, and acarology. He is well known for his sense of humor and his probing interest in science.
Scale Insect Research Award for Prof. Manuela Branco
Manuela Branco was honored in absentia during the XIV ISSIS meeting, held in Catania, Italy, from June 13th - 16th, 2016, for her achievements in the study of scale insects. She was born in October 1960 in Vila Real, Trás-os-Montes, in the North of Portugal, a land of forests and vineyards. Although she has been living in Lisbon all her lifetime, most of her holidays up to the age of 16 were spent with her grandmother in the North. She believes that her passion for forests and nature comes from those times. She is married with Orlando, and mother of two sons, João and Miguel, and a daughter, Beatriz. She completed her studies in Forestry and Natural Resources at the School of Agronomy (ISA), in the Technical University of Lisbon, in 1984. The project of her graduation was carried out at the National Institute of Forest Research (NIFR) and was dedicated to study the phenotypic variability of the honeybee. She proceeded working at NIFR for two years. Already in 1986, she was appointed lecturer at the Forestry Department of ISA and taught in several courses, including Apiculture, Animal Resources, Invertebrates Biology, Animal Biology, Ecology and Forest Protection. In 1993, she obtained a Master degree in Statistics and Probability from the Faculty of Sciences, at the University of Lisbon; her thesis was done on modelling the population dynamics of honeybee colonies. In the same year, she enrolled in the University of Wales, College of Cardiff, UK for her PhD in Applied Biology, under the supervision of Robert Stewart Pickard and Neil Kidd. She completed the PhD thesis in 1997, addressing the population dynamics of Varroa destructor, a parasite of the honeybee. In 2006, she obtained her post-doctoral qualification as the highest academic degree [habilitation] at the Technical University of Lisbon. During her academic career she supervised 2 post-doc and 4 PhD students, and more than 30 MSc thesis or final graduation reports. She published 52 papers in international journals, and more than 50 other publications, including 12 book chapters. Her research activity has been focusing on forest entomology and forest protection, with special attention to insect ecology and biological control. She started working on scale insects in the end of the 1990 ́s. Much of her activity in this field has been directed to pine bast scales (Matsucoccus spp. ) and mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with major attention on biological control and chemical ecology aspects of these insects. Among her interesting findings was the discovery of the kairomonal attraction of Matsucoccus predators to the sex pheromone of their prey (Branco et al. 2006a, 2006b, 2011). Manuela and her research partners also shed light on the bioecology of the ladybird Iberorhyzobius rondensis (Raimundo et al. 2006; Tavares et al. 2014, 2015a, 2015b). Among of her impressive achievements was the modelling of spread distance of scale insect males and natural enemies (Branco et al. 2006c). Lately, she has been intensively involved in the study of the relationships between mealybugs and their parasitoids (Bugila 2014a, 2014b, 2015). She is an active partner in ISSIS meetings since 2001. She attended ISSIS-IX, Padua, Italy (2001), ISSIS-X, Adana, Turkey (2004), ISSIS-XII, Crete, Greece (2010), and organized with José Carlos Franco the ISSIS-XI, at Oeiras, Portugal (2007), editing the corresponding proceedings (Branco et al. 2008).
Prof. José Carlos Franco Awarded the ISSIS Recognition in Scale Insect Science
Prof. José Carlos Franco Santos Silva has been awarded the ISSIS recognition for his scientific achievements and significant contributions in the science of scale insects on July, 2016 in the city of Catania, Sicily. José was recognized for his important studies on mealybug and their natural enemies. José was born in 1960 in Sacavém, Loures (northeast of Lisbon), Portugal. His entire career has been at the Instituto Superior de Agronomia. This famous institute, located in Tapada da Ajuda, in the heart of Lisbon, has roots since 1852, when the Instituto Agricola e Escola Regional de Lisboa was established. José began his studies in the Instituto Superior de Agronomia in 1982and received his undergraduate degree in 1985. In 1988 he completed his MSc in Plant Production. Jose spent his PhD years as an assistant in the Department of Plant Protection and later in Plant Ecology. His PhD research was devoted to study of mealybug ecology in citrus groves under the supervision Prof. Pedro Amaro. Since 1999 José is Professor of Entomology and Plant Protection at the High Institute of Agronomy of the University of Lisbon, and serves also as researcher at Centro de Estudos Florestais. José ’s scope of interest is wide, covering several lines of studies, however, the center of his scientific activity is empirical research focusing on biology and behavior of scale insects, their natural enemies and associates. He is an expert and leader in both IPM and habitat management. Indeed, his research is the state of the art in these disciplines. Jose is involved in extensive international activity as well as being, the chief editor of the journal Phytoparasitica. José’s favorite models are citrus orchards and vineyards. José is also a pioneer in the integration of semiochemicals and biological control tactics in scale insect management. Jose explores new sampling methods of insect populations, and performs basic research in reproductive biology of mealybugs, host- parasitoid interactions, and in the searching behavior of natural enemies of mealybugs. José has published some 40 reviewed papers, most of them contribute to the science of scale insects. José collaborates with scientist in many countries. This is reflected in his numerous research partners and by his vigorous activities as an organizer of scientific workshops and congresses. José’s research interests includevarious pests of fruit trees and vineyards. His great passion for mealybugs always leads him to discover something new about scale insects. Among his major achievements is the understanding of the role of mealybug sex pheromone in the sexual behavior of the male, the various kairomonal responses of their parasitoids, and the function of mealybug defense system against parasitoids. José is a gifted teacher. He has supervised over 40 MSc and PhD students. He loves learning, teaching, and is beloved by his students, earning their appreciation as well as their affection. At the same time José continueshis collaboration with growers who feel the same about him and his contribution to pest management in general and scale insect in particular. José is among the active members of ISSIS who are the lifeblood of these symposia.
Giuseppina Pellizzari: enhancing coccidiology by enhancing coccidiologists
Our time with Giuseppina started during the XIV (1985) National Entomology Congress in Palermo, Giuseppina and Tino shared a contribution on Italian Coccoidea Fauna with Salvatore Marotta and Antonio Tranfaglia. Later, the 6th ISSIS in Krakow (1990) was the first Tino’s opportunity to join the international community of scale insect students. During the meeting, Giuseppina introduced Tino to other colleagues despite his partial experience in the topic and the difficulties in English (Tino studied mealybugs, mostly). That was the opportunity for Giuseppina and Tino to build a robust and fruitful collaboration on scale insect fauna and zoogeography. While attending the ISSIS-VII in Israel (1994) ARO Volcani Center at Bet Dagan (12-17 June, fig. 1) Francesco met the first time the coccidologists guild. Giuseppina immediately immersed Francesco into the group. At that time, Giuseppina had a firm position as a professor, but she has been suggestingon the topic and situations very friendly, despite the fact that we have just met. That was the start of a human and scientific friendship, still growing. Working together on papers, and visiting each other we were aware of Giuseppina studies on Scale Insects and the other many scientific interests of Giuseppina.
Those strange black matters with embedded armoured scales
While studying Septobasidium interaction with Diaspididae off Laurus nobilis L., Phillyrea latifolia L. and angustifolia L. in Apulia we found small - 1 to 3 millimetre - brown/black particles on plant bark. Each particle embeds or lays one or more dead armoured scales belonging to Aonidia lauri (Bouche) or Lepidosaphes flava (Signoret), depending on the host plant. The brown-black bodies were irregularly hemispheric, lobated and dull in appearance. We report the results of observations by light microscopy, SEM and X-rays microanalysis of foamy black matters that constitute most of the particles and embed the scale. Findings of hyphae (?) inside the dead insect bodies in connection to Diaspidid scale phenology at the time of death suggest that the particles result from an entomopathogenic or saprophytic interaction. Acknowledgement: we recognise the help and competence of Pasquale Trotti, SELGE UR3. laboratory responsible, for the SEM pictures & microanalysis and Prof Claudio Ciccarone (SAFE-UNIFG) for the tentative identification of the hyphae found associated with Aonidia lauri. We also recognize the support of Applied Ecology. Aonidia lauri (Bouche) is a common Diaspididae often found on Laurel where it infests trunk and twigs but leaves also. Septobasidium grows to great epiphytic thalli on the plant bark and often infects the scale (Porcelli, 2013). On the same Septobasidium-inhabited Laurel as on Pistacia lentiscus L. or Phillyrea latifolia and angustifolia there are numerous black-dull masses embedding one or more A. lauri or Lepidosaphes flava and often sheltering several more individuals under the margin of the masses themselves. Not sheltered scales are comparatively less than those that, possibly following a tygmotactic stimulus, prefer to fix near or under the masses. Moreover, scrutinising the masses one can easily find several or many scales almost entirely embedded in the black matter or still partially exposed. Even those masses that do not show scales embedded reveal one or more individuals inside the matter once purposely dissected. SEM study reveals the presence of stromatic and possibly penetrative hyphae associate with moniliform Nostoc-like chains glued by a foamy gelatinous sheath. Hyphae, Nostoc-like chains and jelly strongly resemble a species of Collema (Fungi) often symbiotically associates with Nostoc (Cyanobacteria) to form Lichen that in the case fills the scale body. Chemical elementary semiquantitative microanalysis supports the organic origin of the black matter. Next studies will confirm the nature of the actors involved in this intriguing phenomenon.
Nidularia pulvinata (Planchon, 1864) (Hemiptera Kermesidae) gall-inducing attitude
Recurrent Nidularia pulvinata outbreaks off Quercus ilex L. (Fagaceae) led us to scrutinize large amount of infested and damaged trunks, branches and twigs. A long series of detailed observations suggested studying the attitude of the Kermesidae to induce phloem/xylem disorganization by saliva injection, possibly. Evidence show that woody plants tissues near or under the scale insects swell considerably giving the organs a prominent and rising appearance. Infested bark and other plant surfaces are prone to produce crevices and other possible shelters for future crawlers that will find a nice living site nearby. In vivo transverse section, accurate observations corroborated with polarized light microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy suggests that the scale stylets strongly disturb the explored plant tissues. Plant tissues reply to the injury with considerable overgrowing and necrosis. By observations and evidenced we discuss the opportunity to consider Nidularia pulvinata a gall-making species, also comparing its attitude with that of other Kermesidae and Asterolecaniidae. Nidularia pulvinata infestation starts from crawlers that set into natural bark crevices. Scales feeding elicits the plant reaction that results in progressive widening of infested crevices. That, in consequence, offers more room for the subsequent broods of the Kermesidae. To evaluate the action of Nidularia feeding on host plant wood, we fell down two small Quercus ilex infested to death. We chose and mark several points before to cut the infested trunks and branches transversally. The action of Nidularia pulvinata feeding on host plant wood is clear in the left and central figure in comparison to right picture of a not infested trunk. Each log was pictured from the transversal section and the corresponding side. Red dashed lines connect corresponding points of the wood. The red arrow points to wood overgrowths for Nidularia infestation, while a blue arrow target a lateral branch bud. Red lines encircle wood overgrowths due to hyperplasia/hypertrophy stimulated by the Kermesidae. On twigs the Nidularia pulvinata feeding results in wood swelling, depression/overgrowth and necrosis.
Kermes vermilio Planchon and Nidularia pulvinata (Planchon, 1864) (Hemiptera Kermesidae) outbreaks off urban Quercus ilex L. (Fagaceae)
Kermes vermilio and Nidularia pulvinata severe outbreaks are lethal to young holly oaks and strongly damage adult trees. Such infestations are common in several South Italian urban and peri-urban areas and have been reported for a while. Recently we have been observing in Bari (Apulia region) a new considerable invasion of both Nidularia and Kermes on Q. ilex not scale-infested hitherto. The phenomenon is possibly in connection with the new northward expansion of Nidularia that is presently recorded in Italian areas with a continental climate as Veneto and Romagna regions. City surveys and damage estimations revealed the entity of kermesidae impact regarding direct and indirect costs for the maintenance of urban parks, public gardens and leisure areas, avenues and boulevards. Moreover, we discuss the synecology of the two species evaluating the prevalence of mixed infestations on the same plant or the reciprocal competitive displacement. Possible causes of the actual outbreak may lie in ecological disturbance along the rural-urban transition zone, changes in the available range of insecticides, wrong or absent tree maintenance, changes or fluctuation in climatic parameters. Mixed infestations by Kermes vermilio and Nidularia pulvinata off Quercus ilex are not truly mixed; this is evident as we realise that K. vermilio prefers to infest host twigs while N. pulvinata mostly sets on the trunk and the main branches. The two species seems to share a single host plant occupying two near but distinct niches. Damages are similar, being both the Kermesidae capable of inducing die back, but Nidularia actively damages the trunk, also. In a case of infested public greeneries, the officers are usually unable to check the pests, i. e. by an IPM strategy or by chemical control. Possibly because of the extended swarming of crawlers or the missing of effective insecticide authorised for urban area use. Moderate control is given by tree formulate injection but results often less useful than expected. Another phytosanitary “pest cleaning” measure applied by the officers consists of cutting down symptomatic dried twigs as massive pruning every four-five years. Intense pruning in spring and the consequent plant re-sprouting appears favourable to plant health but for a very short lapse. New sprouts are quickly colonised by wandering crawlers and became intensely infested. Moreover, twigs and small branches cut down leave on the plant much more of the Nidularia population while prune down most of the Kermes out the plant. Intense and not timed pruning favours Nidularia by displacing Kermes from the host plant in such a way that urban Q. ilex are heavily infested by the most damaging and lethal of the two pest species. We classified from 1 to 5 the staging of the die back induced by Kermesidae, as reported in table below.
Cryo-SEM observations and imaging of minute lesser sclerotized insects
The study of minute cuticular details of small delicate insects is possible by slide mounting of the entire exoskeleton or part of it. This technique requires whole insect body clearing or tissue bleaching and washing. Lesser sclerotized insect body greatly suffers for such treatments and looses its natural body shape by shrinkage or by flattening, consequently. The aim of this study is to suggest an effective, fast and cheap technique to image less sclerotized insects that are prone to shrink or to wrinkle their bodies because of desiccation. Actual availability of desktop Cryo- SEM (Hitachi TM 3000 series) suggested us to experiment the opportunity to preserve natural body shape of the minute, delicate and lesser sclerotized insects in their living attitude. The technique bases on freezing the specimen, either living or previously EtOH-preserved but moved in water for the preparation, in the water down to -40°C on the SEM Cryo-stage and setting it for observation in SEM vacuum chamber. Once in the vacuum a proper T°C increase at about -28/-22°C allows external ice sublimation and exposes the frozen insect to direct SEM imaging. The technique appears promising because of the overall quality of results, the resolving power, the opportunity to measure the specimens. In fact, delicate specimens as Phylloxera ilicis Grassi (Hemiptera: Phylloxeridae, a representative of Phylloxera quercus Boyer de Fonscolombe group), the Italian grape mealybugs Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) (Diptera: Drosophilidae) maggots that are all usually ruined by desiccation during direct SEM observation, beautifully retain their natural body shape by this technique allowing the study and imaging of external morphology. As a further advantage, there is no need to critical point drying or metal coating, and the same sample can be submitted to conventional slide mounting later, after being studied by Cryo-SEM. Finally, we present a table of the running time/cost per observation of the proposed technique.
Nidularia pulvinata (Planchon) (Hemiptera: Kermesidae) urban outbreaks associated with entomopathogenic fungi
Pest outbreaks often give to insect pathogens the opportunity to infect their host species eventually leading them to death. Recent Nidularia outbreaks off urban Quercus ilex L. showed some cases of entomopathogenic fungi virulence, apparently sustained by species of Fusarium and other fungi. Infection is apparent on the Nidularia population because fungi provoke the scale color shifting to orange or dull-green in medium in large patches. After the isolation in an axenic culture of the Kermesid-associate Mycota, ITS genomic regions amplified by PCR using the universal ITS5/ITS4 primers were sequenced by external service (Macrogen, Seoul, South Korea) for molecular identification. Blast analysis (http://blast. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/Blast. cgi) of the ITS sequence showed a high homology with Quambalaria cyanescens (de Hoog & G. A. de Vries) Z. W. de Beer, Begerow & R. Bauer 2006 (Fungi: Basidiomycota), (identity: 97-96%; e-value 0. 0; coverage 82-75%), Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everh. 1895 (Fungi: Ascomycota) and Fusarium avenaceum (Fr. ) Sacc. 1886 (Fungi: Ascomycota) (identity: 99%; e-value 0. 0; coverage 82-80%), and Penicillium sumatraense Svilv. 1936 (Fungi: Ascomycota) (identity: 100%; e-value . 0; coverage 95-91%). We investigate the biological and ecological role of the above-recorded fungi by correlating the age of infected scale and their age. Mass culturing of the most promising pathogen will lead to semi-field trials to demonstrate the isolate entomopathogenic ability. Finally, we discuss the case of homonymy between the fungal Taxon named Nidularia pulvinata (Schwein.) (Gasteromycetes) and the scale Nidularia pulvinata (Planchon) that can lead to some confusion.
Does Unaspis euonymi (Comstock) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) host Serratia symbiotica Moran (Bacteria: Enterobacteriaceae)?
The euonymus scale Unaspis euonymi (Comstock) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) is a pest of spindle that exhibits a strong preference for Euonymus, although it has been detected on at least 18 genera in 13 plant families (Buxus, Camellia, Celastrus, Daphne, Eugenia, Euonymus, Hibiscus, Ilex, Jasminum, Ligustrum, Lonicera, Olea, Pachistima, Pachysandra, Perychmenum, Prunus and Syringa) (Salisbury et al., 2013). Heavy infestation by this pest may lead to the death of the host plant and consequential loss of income from the cultivation of ornamental plants (Kaygin et al., 2008). U. euonymi is an armored scale insect originally from mild Eastern Asia and probably introduced into Europe in the 20th century (Pellizzari & Germain, 2010). Its lifecycle, depending on climate conditions, comprises two-three generations a year and the control measures to limit its diffusion mainly rely on the use of insecticides or the growing of resistant cultivars. The insects can engage mutualistic interactions or symbioses with a variety of bacteria that can profoundly affect the host’s biology. Apart from obligate symbionts (maternally transmitted), a growing number of facultative or secondary symbionts (that can be horizontally transmitted) have been identified (Sandstrom et al., 2001, Moran et al., 2008). Despite not being essential for the host’s life cycle, this last type of symbiont can strongly influence their fitness (Oliver et al., 2003, Jaenike & Brekke, 2011). Additionally, the mutualistic association between insects and bacteria may play a role in the evolution of the latter as described for some groups of Entereobacteriaceae (Moran et al., 2005). A number of genomic and phylogenetic studies on mutualistic associations between Enterobacteriaceae and aphids, psyllids, scale insects, whiteflies, weevils and other insects have been reported (Lefevre et al., 2004, Thao & Baumann, 2004). Here we report the identification of Serratia symbiotica (strain UESS2016) in U. euonymi adult females collected from Sofia (Bulgaria) in 2013.
Effects of some entomopathogenic fungi on Citrus Mealybug Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
Citrus Mealybug Planococcus citri is an economically important pest species causing harm on citrus and some other plants. Biological control of the pest is gaining importance because of the problems caused by chemical control. In this study, effects of Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and Paecilomyces lilacinus against second instar larvae of mealybug were investigated. Healthy potato tubers were dipped into spore suspensions of the entomopathogens with 108 conidia/ml concentration and then infested with mealybugs. Potatoes were then kept in a climatic room with 25±1°C temperature and 60±5% humidity. Alive and dead mealybug individuals were determined 3, 5 and 7 days after applications and mortality rates were calculated. As a result, three entomopathogens caused different rates of mortality on the pest. B. bassiana isolate showed the highest effect and killed all pest individuals 5 days after the application. Mortality rates caused by P. fumosoroseus and P. lilacinus were lower in the first two observations, while they showed 96% and 82% mortality on the seventh day, respectively.
Determination of releasing dosage of Aphytis Melinus Debach (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) for the biological control of California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) in Turkey
California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) is a key pest of citrus in all growing regions of Turkey. Mass releases of Aphytus melinus DeBach (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) are conducted in Turkey for the biological control of the red scale. We studied the timing and releasing regime of the parasitoid. The study was conducted in two orchards in Adana and Erzin (Hatay) in 2013 and 2014. Each orchard was divided in four equal areas. In each date we released 25000 and 50000 parazitoids per ha in two modalities: (i) 4 releases from April to June, (ii) multiple releases from April to October every 15 days. There were no statistical differences in the scale infestation level between the two releases regimes. The infestation rate of the red scale on fruits before the release of A. melinus was 8% in Adana and 10% in Erzin; after releasing the infestation rate was 6% in 2013 and 4% in 2014 in Adana and 5% in 2013 and 5% in 2014 in Erzin. The population level of the red scale on the citrus leaves was different before and after release in both orchards. However, no significant differences were observed in the population level of the scale on branches.
Biology, natural enemies and the distribution of Physokermes hellenicus Kozàr & Gounari (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Turkey
Physokermes hellenicus Kozár & Gounari (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha) is a new record for Turkish scale insect fauna. Studies on its biological cycle and natural enemies were made on Abies nordmanniana (Steven) (Pinaceae) in Ankara during 2014-2015. It was found that P. hellenicus hibernate as the third instar and has one generation in Ankara. The following natural enemies were found associated with P. hellenicus: Anthribus nebulosus Forster (Coleoptera: Antribidae), Chilocorus renipustulatus (Scriba) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Atroctotomus spp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and the parasitoid Aphycoides clavellatus (Dalman) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Among the natural enemies, A. clavellatus was the main cause of mortality of P. hellenicus populations in Ankara. The scale insect was determined on Abies cilicica (Antoine & Kotschy) Carrière in Kahramanmaraş, Konya and on A. nordmanniana in Bolu, Eskişehir and Ankara, Turkey.
XIV International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies ISSIS Abstract Book
Induced responses of Bougainvillea glabra Choisy (Nyctaginaceae) against Phenacoccus peruvianus Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) attack: preliminary results
Plants are frequently attacked by herbivores and therefore have acquired constitutive and induced defenses during the course of their evolution. Primary and secondary metabolites have been implicated in plant defense against insect pests. Oxidative stress, resulting from the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide andhydroxyl radicals, is a common phenomenon in many plant defense against insect attack. Catalase, which degrades H2O2 into water and oxygen, is one of the major involved antioxidant enzymes. The effectiveness of oxidative defense system in plants can be measured by the activities of antioxidant enzymes and by the levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is generally taken as a tool to assess the severity of the oxidative stress and the degree of plant sensitivity towards ROS induced oxidation. Proline may protect protein structure and membranes from damage, and reduce enzyme denaturation. As well, phenylpropanoid pathway is an important pathway to produce secondary plant metabolites and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), as a key enzyme, catalyzes the deamination of phenylalanine to cinnamic acid, the entry and key regulatory step into the phenylpropanoid pathway. In the present study, plants of Bougainvillea glabra Choisy (Nyctaginaceae) were artificially infested with the obligate phloem-feeding pest Phenacoccus peruvianus Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), introduced to Sicily and Mediterranean basin since 2010, and compared with control, uninfested plants. Leaf samples were taken at 2, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 144 hours after infestation and also after a longer period, many months later, to monitor the plant response. Pro, MDA, Chla, Chlb and Chla+b, Car, CAT and PAL activities were measured at each sampling date. Proline, MDA, CAT and PAL assays showed a higher content at longer period in the infested samples. Regarding Chl, collected data didn’t show any significant difference between infested plant and control. However, these preliminary results appear significant in understanding of Bougainvillea plant defense against mealybugs because any information are not reported in the literature. Further analyses concerning other enzymatic and molecular responses are necessary.
The history of Dactylopius coccus (Costa) (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) in the Mediterranean basin: the Sicilian episode
Dactylopius coccus (Costa) belongs to the family Dacylopiidae (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha), that includes species that live exclusively on Cactaceae and are native in America as well as their host plants. From the dried body of the females, rich in carminic acid, can be extracted the red carmine dye used primarily for food, clothing and cosmetic coloring. In Mexico this species was already reared for that purpose by native people before the discovery of America. The Spanish conquistadors continued the rearing of the cochineal and adopted strong control measures setting up a monopole of the production and commercialization of the colorant. After the decay of their domination, the insect and its hostplants, i. e. various Cactaceae of Opuntia and Nopalea genera, were introduced to other territories (Africa, Mediterranean basin and Canary Islands) with the purpose to obtain the precious dye. The acclimation of both plant and insect was sometimes unsuccessful. It is the case of Italy, where repeated attempts were carried out to rear D. coccus for the carmine dye production, introducing strains in areas with mild climate (e. g. Sardinia and Sicily) but only the hostplant was able to find suitable conditions of life. In Sicily, the prickly pear Opuntia ficus-indica was subsequently widely cultivated and appreciated for the edible fruit. More recently, at the end of 90s in Sicily, another attempt of rearing the cochineal on cultivated prickly pear plants in glasshouse conditions was carried out. Based on the achieved results, it was possible to conclude as the high level of mortality of the nymphal stages of the scale, that hindered the maintaining of the population, was related with the relative humidity values, although low temperatures (till 0° C) were tolerated by crawlers that survived, by entering quiescence. Technically D. coccus could be reared for commercial purposes in the Mediterranean area only if temperature and humidity can be controlled (e. g. in glasshouse), avoiding any eventual threat related to its natural dispersal as occurred with other Dactylopius spp. that can compromise the fruit production.
Scale Insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha, Coccomorpha) on host plants from family Ericaceae in Croatia
During ten years of faunistic research on scale insects in Croatia (2006-2015), ten Scale Insect (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccomorpha) species from four families were found on eight host plants from family Ericaceae. Following species of scale insects were recorded: Coccidae: Coccushesperidum L., Saissetia oleae (Olivier); Diaspididae: Aspidiotus nerii Bouche, Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Morgan), Diaspidiotus bavaricus (Lindinger); Margarodidae: Icerya purchasi (Maskell) and Pseudococcidae: Nipaecoccus delassusi (Balachowsky), Planococcus citri (Risso), Peliococcus calluneti (Lindinger) and Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti). Following materials and methods were used in conducted research: visual inspections, collecting of plant material, storing and preservation of samples, analysis of samples under stereomicroscope, preparation of microscopic slides and identification of species. Specimens were slide mounted under the dissecting stereomicroscope and identified. The most frequently recorded species were C. hesperidum and N. delassusi, which were found on almost half of the samples of collected host plants form family Ericaceae.
Potential for management of Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in organic avocado in eastern Sicily, Italy
Organic avocado (Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) farming is a growing industry in eastern Sicily, and in this environment Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) is a key pest. Biological control strategies against this invasive scale are thus crucial for the sustainability of this cropping system. A field trial was performed to record the natural enemy complex in early autumn, and for comparing the efficacy of a paraffinic oil application (Biolid E® at 2L/ha), of the release of adults (1/m2) of the predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and of their combined application, i. e. oil spray and after one week predator release. In the pretreatment sampling a high proportion of ovipositing female, 38. 64% of the entire population, was recorded. The natural parasitoid community of P. pyriformis consisted of two primary parasitoids and one facultative hyperparasitoid species. Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) accounted for 81% of the parasitoids recovered; Microterys nietneri (Motschulski) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for 8%, and the secondary parasitoid Pachyneuron muscarum (L. ) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) for 11%. The mean percentage of parasitism recorded was 2. 45%, however, an encapsulation rate of 1. 78% was also observed. Adults and larvae of generalist predators belonging to the genera Scymnus spp, Exochomus spp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and larvae of Chrysopa spp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) were also noticed actively feeding on immature stages of the soft scale. The number of live scales (N2-oviposting females) was reduced by 54. 16, 55. 73 and 19. 58 % following the oil application, the oil plus predator release and predator alone, respectively. While, in the control plots the number of live scales increased by 23. 4%, and no changes in the presence of natural enemies was recorded in the sprayed plots. The recorded data suggest that any pesticide application should take into account and thus respect the activity of the rich natural enemy assemblage. In addition, artificial releases of C. montrouzieri were not able to effectively control the scale population.
Biological observations on Matsucoccus josephi (Hemiptera: Matsucoccidae) in Turkey
Observations on the biology of Matsucoccus josephi Bodenheimer & Harpaz (Hemiptera: Matsucoccidae) were made at four natural red pine (Pinus brutia Tenore, Pinaceae) forestry of Antalya (1), Aydın (1) and Muğla (2) in the years 2009-2010. Samples branches of red pine were collected twice during March - November, once in winter months. In addition pheromone traps were used to monitor male scale insect and predators. All stages of M. josephi were counted. Some individuals were preserved into 70 % ethyl alcohol for the identification of life-stages. Nymphs and adults predator that feed on M. josephi, were reared into jars with their host. As results, M. josephi is overwintered second stage (cyst) under the bark of pine trees and has 4 generations (at least). Elatophilus hebraicus Pericart (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) was common and effective predator in Turkey.